Control cycles-a general model Essay Example for Free

Control cycles-a general model Essay A general model of organizational control includes four components that can operate in a continuous cycle and can be represented as a wheel. These elements are: 1. Setting a goal. Project goal setting goes beyond overall scope development to include setting the project baseline plan. The project baseline is predicated on an accurate. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) process. Remember that WBS establishes all the deliverables and work packages associated with the project, assigns the personnel responsible for them, and creates a visual chart of the project from highest level down through the basic task and subtask levels. The project baseline is created as each task is laid out on a network diagram and resources and time durations are assigned to it. 2. Measuring progress. Effective control systems require accurate project measurement mechanisms. Project managers must have a system in place that will allow them to measure the ongoing status of various project activities in real time. We need a measurement system that can provide information as quickly as possible. What to measure also needs to be clearly defined. Any number of devices allow us to measure one aspect of the project or another; however, the larger question is whether or not we are getting the type of information we can really use. 3. Comparing actual with planned performance. When we have some sense of the original baseline (plan) and a method for accurately measuring progress, the next step is to compare the two pieces of information. A gap analysis can be used as a basis for testing the project’s status. Gap analysis refers to any measurement process that first determines the goals and then the degree to which the actual performance lives up to those goals. The smaller the gaps between planned and actual performance, the better the outcome. In cases whe re we see obvious differences between what was planned an what was realized, we have a clear-cut warning signal. 4. Taking action. Once we detect significant deviations from the project plan, it becomes necessary to engage in some form of corrective action to minimize or remove the deviation. The process of taking corrective action is generally straightforward. Corrective action can either be relatively minor or may involve significant remedial steps. At its most extreme, corrective action may even involve scuttling a nonperforming project. After corrective action, the monitoring and control cycle begins again. The control cycle is continuous. As we create a plan, we begin measurement efforts to chart progress and compare stages against the baseline plan. Any indications of significant deviations from the plan should immediately trigger an appropriate response, leading to a reconfiguration of the plan, reassessment of progress, and so on. Project monitoring is continuous, full-time cycle of target setting, measuring, correcting, improving, and remeasuring. MONITORING PROJECT PERFORMANCE As we discovered in the chapters on project budgeting and resource management, once we have established a project baseline budget, one of the most important methods for indicating the ongoing status of the project is to evaluate it against the original budget projections. For project monitoring and control, both individual task budgets and the cumulative project budget are relevant. The cumulative budget can be broken down by time over the project’s projected duration. The Project S-Curve: A Basic Tool As a basis for evaluating project control techniques, let us consider a simple example. Assume a project (Project Sierra) with four work packages (Design, Engineering, Installation, and Testing), a budget to complete of $80,000, and an anticipated duration of 45 weeks. To determine project performance and status, a straightforward time/cost analysis is often our first choice. Here the project’s status is evaluated as a function of the accumulated costs and labor hours or quantities plotted against time for both budgeted and actual amounts. We can see that time (shown on the x, or horizontal, axis) is compared with money expended (shown on the y, or vertical, axis). The classic project S-curve represents the typical form of such a relationship. Budget expenditures are initially low and ramp up rapidly during the major project execution stage, before starting to level off again as the project gets nearer to its completion. Cumulative budget projections for Project Sierra have been plotted against the project’s schedule. The S-curve figure represents the project budget baseline against which budget expenditures are evaluated. Monitoring the status of a project using S-curves becomes a simple tracking problem. At the conclusion of each given time period (week, month, or quarter), we simply total the cumulative project budget expenditures to date and compare them with the anticipated spending patterns. Any significant deviations between actual and planned budget spent reveal a potential problem area. Simplicity is the key benefit of S-curve analysis. Because the projected project baseline is established in advance, the only additional data shown are the actual project budget expenditures. The S-curve also provides real-time tracking information in that budget expenditures can be constantly updated and the new values plotted on the graph. Project information can be visualized immediately and updated continuously, so S-curves offer an easy-to-read evaluation of the project’s status in a timely manner. (The information is not necessarily easily interpreted, however, as we shall see later.) Our Project Sierra example can also be used to illustrate how S-curve analysis is employed. Suppose that by week 21 in the project, the original budget projected expenditures of $50,000. However, our actual project expenditures totaled only $40,000. In effect, there is a $10,000 budget shortfall, or negative variance between the cumulative budgeted cost of the project and its cumulative actual cost. In the table it shows the track of budgeted expenditures with actual project costs, including identifying the negative variance shown at week 21. In this illustration, we see the value of S-curve analysis as a good visual method for linking project costs (both budgeted and actual) over the project’s schedule. S-CURVE DRAWBACKS When project teams consider using S-curves, they need to take the curve’s significant drawbacks into consideration as well as their strengths. S-curves can identify positive and negative variance (budget expenditures above or below projections), but they do not allow us to make reasonable interpretations as to the cause of variance. Consider the S-curve shown. The actual budget expenditures have been plotted to suggest that the project team has not spent the total planned budget money to date (there is negative   variance). However, the question is how to interpret this finding. The link between accumulated project costs and time is not always easily resolved. Is the project team behind schedule (given that they have not spent sufficient budget to date) or might there be alternative reasons for the negative variance? Assume that your organization tracks project costs employing an S-curve approach and uses that information to assess the status of an ongoing project. Also assume that the project is to be completed in 12 months and has a budget of $150,000. At the six-month checkup, you discover that the project S-curve shows significant shortfall; you have spent far less on the project to date than was originally budgeted. Is this good or bad news? On the surface, we might suppose that this is a sign of poor performance; we are lagging far behind in bringing the project along and the smaller the amount we have spent to date is evidence that our project is behind schedule. On the other hand, there are any number of reasons why this circumstance actually might be positive. For example, suppose that in running the project, you found a cost-effective method for doing some component of the work or came across a new technology that significantly cut down on expenses. In that case, the time/cost metric may not only be misused, but might lead to dramatically inaccurate conclusions. Likewise, positive variance is not always a sign of project progress. In fact, a team may have a serious problem with overexpenditures that could be interpreted as strong progress on the project when in reality it signals nothing more than their inefficient use of project capital resources. The bottom line is this: Simply evaluating a project’s status according to its performance on time versus budget expenditures may easily lead us into making inaccurate assumptions about project performance. Milestone Analysis Another method for monitoring project progress is milestone analysis. A milestone is an event or stage of the project that represents a significant accomplishment on the road to the project’s completion. Completion of a deliverable (a combination of multiple project tasks), an important activity on the project’s critical path, or even a calendar date can all be milestones. In effect, milestones are road markers that we observe on our travels along the project’s life cycle. There are several benefits to using milestones as a form of project control. 1. Milestones signal the completion of important project steps. A project’s milestones are an important indicator of the current status of the project under development. They give the project team a common language to use in discussing the ongoing status of the project. 2. Milestones can motivate the project team. In large projects lasting several years, motivation can flag as team members begin to have difficul ty seeing how the project is proceeding overall, what their specific contribution has been and continues to be, and how much longer the project is likely to take. Focusing attention on milestones helps team members become more aware of the project’s successes as well as its status, and they can begin to develop greater task identity regarding their work on the project. 3. Milestones offer points at which to reevaluate client needs and any potential change requests. A common problem with many types of projects is the nature of repetitive and constant change requests from clients. Using project review milestones as formal â€Å"stop points,† both the project team and the clients are clear on when they will take midcourse reviews of the project and how change requests will be handled. When clients are aware of these formal project review points, they are better able to present reasonable and well-considered feedback (and specification change requests) to the team. 4. Milestones help coordinate schedules with vendors and suppliers. Creating delivery dates that do not delay project activities is a common challenge in scheduling delivery of key project components. From a resource perspective, the project team needs to receive supplies before they are needed but not so far in advance that space limitations, holding and inventory costs, and in some cases spoilage are problems. Hence, to balance delays of late shipments against the costs associated with holding early deliveries, a well-considered system of milestones creates a scheduling and coordinating mechanism that identifies the key dates when supplies will be needed. 5. Milestones identify key project review gates. For many complex projects, a series of midterm project reviews are mandatory. For example, many proj ects that are developed for the U.S. government require periodic evaluation as a precondition to the project firm receiving some percentage of the contract award. Milestones allow for appropriate points for these review. Sometimes the logic behind when to hold such reviews is based on nothing more than the passage of time (â€Å"It is time for July 1 review†). For other projects, the review gates are determined based on completion of a series of key project steps (such as the evaluation of software results from the beta sites). 6. Milestones signal other team members when their participation is expected to begin. Many times projects require contributions from personnel who are not part of the project team. For example, a quality assurance individual may be needed to conduct systems tests or quality inspection and evaluations of work done to date. The quality supervisor needs to know when to assign a person to our project, or we may find when we reach that milestone that no on e’s available to help us. Because the QA person is not part of the project team, we need to coordinate his or her involvement in order to minimize disruption to the project schedule. 7. Milestones can delineate the various deliverables developed in the work breakdown structure and therefore enable the project team to develop a better overall view of the project. You then are able to refocus efforts and function-specific resources toward the deliverables that show signs of trouble, rather than simply allocating resources in a general manner. For example, indications that the initial project software programming milestone has been missed allows the project manager to specifically request additional programmers downstream, in order to make up time later in the project’s development. Problems with Milestones Milestones, in one form or another, are probably the simplest and most widely used of all project control devices. Their benefits lie in their clarity; it is usually easy for all project team members to relate to the idea of milestones as a project performance metric. The problem with them is that they are a reactive control system. You must first engage in project activities and then evaluate them relative to your goal. If you significantly underperform your work to that point, you are faced with having to correct what has already transpired. Imagine, for example, that a project team misses a milestone by a large margin. Not having received any progress reports up until the point that the bad news becomes public, the project manager is probably not in a position to craft an immediate remedy for the shortfall. Now, the problems compound. Due to delays in receiving the bad news, remedial steps are themselves delayed, pushing the project farther behind. EARNED VALUE MANAGEMENT An increasingly popular method used in project monitoring and control consists of a mechanism that has become known as Earned Value Management (EVM). The origins of EVM date to the late 1960s when U.S. government contracting agencies began to question the ability of contractors to accurately track their costs across the like of various projects. As a result, after 1967, the Department of Defense imposed 35 Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria that suggested, in effect, that any future projects procured by the U.S. government in which the risk of cost growth was to be retained by the government must satisfy these 35 criteria. In the more than 30 years since its origin, EVM has been practiced in multiple settings, by agencies from governments as diverse as Australia, Canada, and Sweden, as well as a host of project-based firms in numerous industries. Unlike previous project tracking approaches, EVM recognize that it is necessary to jointly consider the impact of time, cost, and project performance on any analysis of current project status. Put another way: Any monitoring system that only compares actual against budgeted cost numbers ignores the fact that the client is spending that money to accomplish something-create a project. Therefore, EVM reintroduces and stresses the importance of analyzing the time element in project status updates. Time is important because it becomes the basis for determining how much work should be accomplished at certain milestone points. EVM also allows the project team to make future projections of project status based on its current state. At any point in the project’s development we are able to calculate both schedule and budget efficiency factors (the efficiency with which budget is being used relative to the value that is being created) and use those values to make future projections about the estimated cost and schedule to project completion. We can illustrate the advance in the project control process that Earned Value represents by comparing it to the other project tracking mechanisms. If we consider the key metrics of project performance as those success criteria discussed in Chapter 1 (scheduling, budget, and performance), most project evaluation approaches tend to isolate some subset of the overall success measure. For example, project S-curve analysis directly links budget expenditures with the project schedule. Again, the obvious disadvantage to this approach is that it ignores the project performance linkage. Project control charts such as tracking Gantt charts link project performance with schedule but may give budget expenditures short shrift. The essence of a tracking approach to project status us to emphasize project performance over time. While the argument could be made that budget is implicitly assumed to be spent in some preconceived fashion, this metric does not directly apply a link between the use of time and performance factors with project cost. Earned value, on the other hand, directly links all three primary project success metrics (cost, schedule, and performance). This methodology is extremely valuable because it allows for regular updating of a time-phased budget to determine schedule and cost variances, as identified by the regular measurement of project performance. Terminology for Earned Value Following are some key concepts that allow us to calculate Earned Value and use its figures to make future project performance projections. PVPlanned value. A cost estimate of the budgeted resources scheduled across the project’s life cycle (cumulative baseline). EVEarned value. This is the real budgeted cost, or â€Å"value,† of the work that has actually been performed to date. ACActual cost of work performed. The cumulative total costs incurred in accomplishing the various project work packages. SPISchedule Performance Index. The earned value to date divided by the planned value of work scheduled to be performed (EV/PV). This value allows us to calculate the projected schedule of the project to completion. CPICost Performance Index. The earned value divided by the actual, cumulative cost of the work performed to date (EV/AC). This value allows us to calculate the projected budget to completion. BACBudgeted cost at completion. This represents the total budget for a project. Creating Project Baselines The first step in developing an accurate control process is to create the project baselines against which progress can be measured. Baseline information is critical regardless of the control process we employ, but baselines are elemental when performing EVM. The first piece of information necessary for performing earned value is the planned value; that is, the project baseline. The PV should comprise all relevant project costs, the most important of which are personnel costs, equipment and materials, and project overhead, sometimes referred to as level of effort. Overhead costs (level of effort) can include a variety of fixed costs that must be included in the project budget, including administrative or technical support, computer work, and other staff expertise use (such as legal advice or marketing). The actual steps in establishing the project baseline are fairly straightforward and require two pieces of data: the Work Breakdown Structure and a time-phased project budget. 1. The W ork Breakdown Structure identified the individual work packages and tasks necessary to accomplish the project. As such, the WBS allowed us to first identify the individual tasks that would need to be performed. It also gave us some understanding of the hierarchy of tasks needed to set up work packages and identify personnel needs (human resources) in order to match the task requirements to the correct individuals capable of performing them. 2. The time-phased budget takes the WBS one step further: It allows us to identify the correct sequencing of tasks, but more importantly, it enables the project team to determine the points in the project when budget money is likely to be spent in pursuit of those tasks. Say, for example, that our project team determines that one project activity, Data Entry, will require a budget of $20,000 to be completed, and further, that the task is estimated to require 2 months to completion, with the majority of the work being done in the first month. A ti me-phased budget for this activity might resemble the following: Activity| Jan| Feb| †¦| Dec| Total| Data Entry| $14,000| $6,000| | -0-| $20,000| Once we have collected the WBS and applied a time-phased budget breakdown, we can create the project baseline. The result is an important component of earned value because it represents the standard against which we are going to compare all project performance, cost, and schedule data as we attempt to assess the viability of an ongoing project. This baseline, then, represents our best understanding of how the project should progress. How the project is actually doing, however, is, of course, another matter. Why Use Earned Value? Assume that it is now week 30 of the project and we are attempting to assess the project’s status. Also assume that there is no difference between the projected project costs and actual expenditures; that is, the project budget is being spent within the correct time frame. However, upon examination, suppose we were to discover that Installation was only half-completed and Project Testing had not yet begun. This example illustrates both a problem with S-curve analysis and the strength of EVM. Project status assessment is only relevant when some measure of performance is considered in addition to budget and elapsed schedule. Consider the revised data for Project Sierra. Note that as of week 30, work packages related to Design and Engineering have been totally completed, whereas the Installation is only 50% done, and Testing has not yet begun. These percentage values are given based on the project team or key individual’s assessment of the current status of work package completion. The question now is: What is the earned value of the project work done to date? As of week 30, what is the status of this project in terms of budget, schedule, and performance? Calculating the earned value for these work packages is a relatively straightforward process. We can modify the previous table to focus exclusively on the relevant information for determining earned value. The planned budget for each work package is multiplied by the percentage completed in order to determine the earned value to date for the work packages, as well as for the overall project. In this case, the earned value at the 30-week point is $51,000. We can compare the planned budget against the actual earned value using the original project budget baseline. This process allows us to assess a more realistic determination of the status of the project when the earned value is plotted against the budget baseline. Compare this figure with the alternative method, in which negative variance is calculated, with no supporting explanation as to the cause or any indication about whether this figure is meaningful or not. Recall that by the end of week 30, our original budget projections suggested that $68,000 should have been spent. Instead, we are projecting a shortfall of $17,000. In other words, we are not only showing a negative variance in terms of money spent on the project, but also in terms of value created (performance) of the project to date. Unlike the standard S-curve evaluation, EVM variance is meaningful because it is based not simply on budget spent, but value earned. A negative variance of $10,000 in budget expenditures may or may not signal cause for concern; however, a $17,000 shortfall in value earned on the project to date represents a variance of serious consequences. Steps in Earned Value Management There are five steps in Earned Value Management (EVM): 1. Clearly define each activity or task that will be performed on the project, including its resource needs as well as a detailed budget.As we demonstrated earlier, the Work Breakdown Structure allows project teams to identify all necessary project tasks. It further allows for each task to be assigned its own project resources, including equipment and materials costs, as well as personnel assignments. Finally, coupled with the task breakdown and resource assignments, it is possible to create the budget figure or cost estimate for each project task. 2. Create the activity and resource usage schedules. These will identify the proportion of the total budget allocated to each task across a project calendar. Determine how much of an activity’s budget is to be spent each month (or other appropriate time period) across the project’s projected development cycle. Coupled with the development of a project budget should be its direct linkage to the project schedule. The determination of how much budget money is to be allocated to project tasks is important. Equally important is the understanding of when the resources are to be employed across the project’s development cycle. 3. Develop a â€Å"time-phased† budget that shows expenditures across the projects life.The total (cumulative) amount of the budget becomes the project baseline and is referred to as the planned value (PV). In real terms, PV just means that we can identify the cumulative budget expenditures planned at any stage in the project’s life. The PV, as a cumulative value, is derived from addin g the planned budget expenditures for each preceding time period. 4. Total the actual costs of doing each task to arrive at the actual cost of work performed (AC).We can also compute the budgeted values for the tasks on which work is being performed. This is referred to as the earned value (EV) and is the origin of the term for this control process. 5. Calculate both a project’s budget variance and schedule variance while it is still in process.Once we have collected the three key pieces of data (PV, EV, and AC), it is possible to make these calculations. The schedule variance is calculated by the simple equation: SV = EV – PV, or the difference between the earned value to date minus the planned value of the work scheduled to be performed to date. The budget, or cost, variance is calculated as: CV = EV – AC, or the earned value minus the actual cost of work performed. USING EARNED VALUE TO MANAGE A PORTFOLIO OF PROJECTS Earned Value Management can work at the portfolio level as well as with individual projects. The process simply involves the aggregation of all earned value measures across the firm’s entire project portfolio in order to give an indication as to the efficiency with which a company is managing its projects. Other useful information contained in the Portfolio Earned Value Management table includes the total positive variances for both budget and schedule, as well as determination of the relative schedule and cost variances as a percentage of the total project portfolio. The use of Earned Value Management for portfolio tracking and control offers top management an excellent window into the firm’s ability to efficiently run projects, allows for comparisons across all projects currently in development, and isolates both the positive and negative variances as they occur. All of this is useful information for top-level management of multiple projects.

Critical Appreciation Of To His Coy Mistress English Literature Essay

Critical Appreciation Of To His Coy Mistress English Literature Essay The poem is written in iambic tetrameters because there are four feet in each line; and each foot consists of two syllables; and in each foot the first syllable is light or unstressed but the second is stressed. There are also some variations, say the first foot of the first line has a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one; so it is trochaic; but it is natural to iambic, too. These variations have been written on purpose. In line 4, there are three successive stressed syllables in the words long loves days in order to emphasize the length of the time which is stated in the words. Of course, some of them are written only for variety like lines 3, 5, 6, and so on. There is a spondaic foot in line 12 in Vaster probably to add significance to the word. A pyrrhic begins line 18; in this line, the next foot is spondaic in last age for the emphasis which is concerning the period stated by the words. In line 22, hurrying has three successive light syllables which increase its sense. It is true of the word echoing in line 27, that is, since they are related to movement, a light thing can move fast; so they enhance their senses. The poem has a clear as bb cc rhyme scheme. Sometimes, it is not exact, i.e., in the words would and Flood. But in conjunction with the regular meter, it gives the poem a controlled and reflective tone. The rhyme and meter give it a pleasant musical effect. The imagery has superficially unremarkable, i.e., the distance between the Ganges river and the Humber river which has the sense of humor. The dominant images of the second stanza are concerning death and time; but death has not been used in the first stanza at all. The images of the third stanza are concerning youth and enjoying it. In this poem there are also some allusions to Greek mythology, courtly love, and the Bible. Then, there is no complicated tone; it is playful and urbane. No one can consider it as a kind of love poem. For the speaker establishes a courtly love which is particularly traditional. He wants to make his beloved a virtually inaccessible one who can be like goddess. In addition, she can be considered as a cruel lady who withholds her love from the speaker. So the lover sits by the Humber tide and complains of her cruelty. And he has served her by praise and adoration since the tie of Noahs Flood in 4000 B.C. and will also serve till the conversion of the Jews to Christianity. This is a humor because the time is to much. He says it for making the lady smile and be ready to hear a courtly love or divinity of the lady for the fact that the poet says her to sport them, to roll all their strength and sweetness up into one ball, and to tear their pleasures with rough strife. Some traditional meta phors are also used in the poem which represent the passing of times winged chariot. As we read the poem, we find out the fact that the male speaker enforces his mistress or girl friend to cease being coy or reluctant. There are several key words which should be cared by the reader. They consist of time, long loves day, the Flood, the slow growth of vast empires, a hundred years, two hundred years, thirty thousand years, an age, the last age, lower rate, times winged chariot, deserts of vast eternity, now, at once, our time, the iron gates of life, and the movement of the sun all of which suggest the passing of time, brevity of youth and time, and the urgency of experiencing all the delights of young love. The speaker also worries about them. There are also some rhetorical features. The first twenty lines represents a series of conditions, like if the things were somehow or if or if they were different from what they are. Therefore, it can be concluded the poet wants to say the fact that if they were not imprisoned by time. Tenses of Verbs If we divide the poem to three section notice that the first section, to do with if is written exclusively in the conditional tense: were, we would, you should. The conditional tense is about unreality; its abut things that do not exist. The conditional tense goes with if, and it is always connected with what is not, or what might happen if. The detailed descriptions of the lengths to which he would go if they had the time serve to prove to his mistress that he acknowledges she deserves such wooing, but is unable to honor her in this way simply because time is against them. In the second section o this poem, the But part (line 21) suddenly the conditional tense disappears an is replaced by the far more definite and immediate present tense: But at my back I always hear. A combination of the present tense and the adverb always creates a sense of certainty. It is as if the long, meandering lines of conditional wooing of the first stanza are sharply interrupted by a very present obstacle time. In the third section, the therefore part (line 33), notice that the whole segment is written in the present tense and now appears three times. The combinations of the present tense and now saturates the verse with a sense of urgency. It is also worth nothing that some of the verbs are in the imperative form that is, they are commands let us sport us while we may (line 37); let us roll all our strength (line 41). The imperative form, the present tense and now all work together to create a feeling of immediacy and a need to seize the day. Subjects and verbs In the last section, if we consider the final couplet, the doubt and suggestion of failure present in though we cannot make our sun/stand still, is quickly and thoroughly erased by the use of the emphatic we will as opposed to the plain future tense we shall. To explain clearly, the plain future form of the verb to be is as follows: I shall be, you/he/she/it will be, we shall be, you/they will be. This form gives us a sense of merely what will happen in time to come. For example, if it is cold tomorrow, we shall be staying at home. This is really a prediction: if this is the case, then that will happen. To make this into an emphatic form you need to change it thus: I will be, you/he/she/it shall be, we will be, you/they shall be. Therefore the emphatic form of a verb changes the sense considerably. Literary devices Literary devices are important for Formalists. Three important devices in the poem are allusions, ironies, exaggerations, imageries and rhythms. Allusions are discussed above, now we will discuss about ironies, exaggerations, imageries and rhythms. There are many overstatements in the poem, i.e., the distance between the Ganges river in India and the Humber river in England, the extension of the love from before the Flood to the conversion of the Jews, growing their loves as slowly as empires, praising her eyes and gaze during years, adoring her breast during 200 years, praising the rest of her body during 30,000 year, celebrating heart during the last age. These exaggerations come to an end with the following two lines: For, lady, you deserve this state Nor, would I love at lower rate. The poem is more than the simple confrontation with a coy lady. It is a comic argument which represents the brevity of youth and life, for the lover always looks toward the inevitable and that is death. It can be induced from the following lines: But at my back I always hear Times winged chariot hurrying near: And yonder all before us lie Deserts of vast eternity. Therefore, it is an overlapping context which has a new dimension, too. It is a kind of ironic defense against human beings limitation. The poem begins with flattering statements, expressed by the lover, as lady. Then, the argument shows their ideal relationship. He also achieves a fine sublimation by saying that she deserves this state; and he wants to persuade the lady to accept the proposition. In the second stanza, the tone of the poem is shifted because the speaker reveals all the disadvantages of this refusal by love. He also dares to state the result of the refusal by saying that will not be beautiful, and her quaint honor turn to dust. In the final stanza, the poet stops the ironical use of language, wanting the reluctant lady to seize the moment the imagery is brilliant and a sexual one, too. The image of fire which smolders in the first stanza and turns to ashes in the second, explodes into passion in the third stanza. The speaker, in the last four lines influences the lady by an orgiastic force formed by rhythmic spondees like thus, though, and stand, still and by suggestive puns like make our sun, and make him run. The poem moves towards unity and vitality with heavy emphasis on pleasure and a sense of cheating time by winning the battle against it. So the positive tone of the final stanza overrides the slowness of the first, and the harsh, violent coldness of the second. This is indeed the tactic of the narrator as he tries to convince his love to surrender to him. Using logic in such an emotive situation would seem inappropriate, but the passion with which he argues is indeed persuasive, and the reader reaches the final line with a sense of triumph an determination to let love rule, which we can only assume is also conveyed to his silent, cold coy mistress.

Neo-Marxist analysis: Neo-liberal policies

Neo-Marxist analysis: Neo-liberal policies What is the neo-Marxist assessment of neo-liberal policies and to what extent do you agree with this assessment? Neo-Marxism is a school of economic thought which applies Marxist ideas to the present global economic conditions. It became prevalent during the 1960s and 1970s as neo-Marxist scholars demonstrated how capitalist policies hindered development and increased the inequality between the Global North and South. Henceforth, neo-Marxists produced the dependency and modern world system theories as clear illustrations as to how neo-liberal capitalism has brought increased inequality to the global economy. Therefore, in order to examine neo-Marxist assessments of neo-liberal policies, it is firstly important to consider different neo-Marxist perspectives in detail and analyse the elements which are contested and by whom. It is also important to evaluate the arguments for and against the doctrine, which would help to gauge to what extent the neo-Marxist assessments are credible. Thus it will be argued that neo-Marxist theories provide an accurate analysis of how neo-liberal capitalism has crea ted an increase in political and economic subordination of the South to the North and further, its critical examination of the New International Economic Order. The argument which supports the development problem analysis stems from neo-liberal economics. The theoretical basis is that, ‘rather than protecting national markets and production, neo-liberal theory promotes openness and allows more efficient use of resources, exchange of technology and greater opportunities for economic growth.’ This approach has been influential in modernisation theory, which asserts that, once states implement neo-liberal restructuring measures and entrepreneurs accumulate sufficient capital, the benefits of growth and efficiency would ‘trickle down’ to the poor. Neo-liberals argue that underdeveloped societies, ‘should learn from the development experiences of the already developed or pioneer countries,’ striving to become more like existing developed societies. In the early 1990s, the IMF and World Bank in conjunction with the US Treasury Department ‘arrived at a consensus that neo-liberal policies were needed in l ess developed and emerging market economies.’ These policies included the strengthening of the free market, supporting private enterprise and increasing deregulation allowing entrepreneurial initiative. The Washington Consensus had several key policies for the Global South to increase development and these were said to be market-led. These included the issuing of loans so long as ‘Southern’ governments followed strict policy conditions, state-led development was replaced with market-led development and to use foreign exchange from export-led growth to pay off debts and promote development. However, neo-Marxists criticise these policies and have lead them to introduce theories which address the level of underdevelopment caused by neo-liberalism and the Washington Consensus. The neo-Marxist theories of Dependency and World System Theories both share the idea that the Global North and South are in a structural relationship with one another. The former theory originated in the South, and its subject area is explicitly geared towards the problems and interests of the South and is seen as, ‘bottom up,’ approach to international political economy, which prioritises the conditions faced by the poor and the oppressed. Furthermore, having emerged from the development economics studies of the 1960s, dependency theory simultaneously links underdevelopment and capitalist exploitation to trade and monetary relations, and the role of corporate actors and economic institutions. The theory claims that the impoverishment of the South is a direct outcome of their exploitation by the advanced countries in the age of imperialism, which led to the superior development of the North. While the countries in the North accumulate sizeable capital, the countries in t he South are further plunged into underdevelopment. The dependency theory further claims that a new form of imperialism is now dominant, ‘in which an economic imperialism continues the exploitation of the South, without the direct political rule of colonialism.’ When analysing neo-Marxist assessments of neo-liberalism it is important to consider where neo-liberalism has been implemented in both developed and underdeveloped nations. When taking the example of how neo-liberalism was embedded in Latin America; there were several distinct policies that lead the transition into neo-liberal economics. A specific policy was the exchange-rate overvaluation which, ‘artificially reduces the local price of imports,’ however lead to a, ‘devastating impact on the balance of payments and employment.’ Other policies such as domestic financial liberalisation and liberalisation of capital account of the fiscal reforms lead to investment and savings rates declining and public debt levels increasing sharply due to high interest rate levels respectably. Neo-liberal economic policies were implemented by Thatcher’s government of 1979-1990. However, she left behind the highest inflation and interest rates among advanced economies, including large scale bankruptcies, high and rising unemployment and the largest current account deficit in history. The UK’s economic downturn highlights and emphasises the weakness within the doctrine of neo-liberalism. Critical analysts, including those associated with World Systems Theory, neo-Marxism and postcolonial theory; suggest that underdevelopment is actually a problem of dependency, arising within a world system operating as a whole. Underdeveloped societies are not in the position they are in due to internal inadequacies, but because of an ongoing history of dependency, economic exploitation, political subordination and military violence. Whereas the mainstream analysis suggests that any and all underdeveloped societies can in principle â€Å"catch up† with the West through the adoption of development-led, typically neo-liberal policies, critical theorists suggest that such a â€Å"catch-up† cannot happen in a world dominated by the developed societies. Any improvement in the status of underdeveloped societies would require a radical transformation of the entire world system, including the position within it of the developed societies. It could not take the form of a  "catch-up† but only of a general structural transformation. This is because the position of developed countries is itself a product of the world system and requires the continued existence of underdevelopment to sustain it. Despite significant differences, critical approaches share the view that, ‘there exists a world structure in which dominant interests located in the advanced industrial world dominate and exploit the rest of the world using economic, political and military means.’ Andre Gunder Frank argues that, ‘the global system is a whole chain of metropolis-satellite relations. Each metropolis dominates, exploits and draws wealth from its satellite or satellites.’ This chain, with northern societies at the top, keeps societies in Africa, Asia and Latin America at the bottom of a global system. Frank sees surplus exported upwards and outwards from the bottom of the chain to the top. For Frank, development is not possible without a complete break from the system. Once a state has become a satellite, it can only develop when its ties with the metropolis are broken or weakened, for example in times of war or recession. In this view development is always dependent development and a â€Å"catch-up† is ruled out. Any context in which development occurred would involve the construction of a new international economic order which, far from conforming underdeveloped societies to models set in the north, would alter economic relations in a manner which would transform developed as well as underdeveloped societies. However, Dependency theory is weak in its analysis of capitalist relations as being inherently negative and based purely on exploitation. Although underdevelopment and poverty are vital problems of a global scale, they are not sole features of the international economy. Development has occurred in peripheral areas, and not all relations between the North and South are about exploitation; indeed, not all international relations involve interrelation between underdeveloped and developed as Dependency focuses, but relationships between advanced states must too be studied. Therefore, the extent to which one believes the issue of underdevelopment is salient in the international political economy can dictate how much one believes dependency theory enables an understanding of these economic relations to a degree, however this approach is inherently limited because International Political Economy must also be studied by looking at a system of wealth production and not just monopolistic explo itation of wealth. Similarly, the even faster growth of development in less industrialised states over the industrialised in examples of Taiwan and Singapore indicate that Dependency theories do not encapsulate fully the potential nature of economic relations through ignoring any possibility of cooperation and mutual advantage through capitalism. Additionally, in the Dependency theory’s analysis of underdevelopment itself, flaws are also found. The fact that the ‘development of the underdevelopment.’ is still as crucial an issue today as it was when Gunder Frank wrote his piece in 1969 is proof that ‘dependency’ does not offer a real understanding of underdevelopment, despite highlighting it, because it cannot offer a solution to it. Its analysis in explaining the reasons why certain countries are underdeveloped is singular and base because it is using dependence alone as justification, and so is not able to offer structural adjustment programmes to actually change the economic position of the underdeveloped in the international economy. The fact that underdevelopment is always equated with capitalism also adds to a tendency for Dependency to criticise capitalism rather than explain the reasons why underdevelopment is not solved and analyse the causes of poverty. When placing primary emphasis on the level of economic development, with political or ideological differences, this approach yields the ‘North-South’ divide. Though there are some anomalies, such as South Africa and Australia, the world is seen as divided essentially between the wealthy and powerful countries of the Northern Hemisphere and the poor, less-developed countries of the Southern Hemisphere. However, the North-South dichotomy, though useful in debate, is inaccurate and misleading. A more precise economic model of the world system distinguishes among the superpowers, solely the United States at the end of the 20th century; other developed countries, such as Japan, Germany, and Britain; and the underdeveloped countries, such as China and Bolivia. We then have First, Second, and Third Worlds. A further refinement of the economic model looks past the level of three worlds of development to a single underlying and developing world system. Based on a historical perspective, this view, advanced especially by the American theorist Immanuel Wallerstein, argues that there is but a single world economy, the capitalist world economy, which has been expanding since the 17th century. Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory, developed in 1974, utilised many features found in the Dependency Model, such as viewing development in global conditions rather than focussing on economic development in individual countries. However, there are differences between the two theories and Wallerstein, ‘moves beyond the static dualism of the dependency models†¦rather than viewing the world in terms of ‘core’ and ‘periphery.’’ There are ‘core countries,’ such as the United States and Japan; ‘semi-peripheral countries,’ such as Bra zil, most eastern European states, and China; and ‘peripheral countries,’ such as Cuba and most of the poor countries of Africa and Asia. Depending on economic fortunes and fluctuations, as well as the logic of the developing system itself, countries can move in and out of these categories. This is in stark contrast to the Dependency Theory which advocates that periphery nations would permanently be in a state of exploitation, ‘some countries of the world were experiencing economics development in terms of industrialisation†¦including the ‘Asian Tigers’ of South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, as well as Latin American nations such as Brazil.’ In order to move a country’s status from the periphery to the core, Wallerstein proposes import substitution as a solution. Import substitution is a phenomenon that responds to external disruption of trade by domestically producing substitutes for those goods previously imported. This is a policy that the governments in less developed countries may use to undertake industrialisation and structural changes. Wallerstein supports the core and periphery to create globalization. Wallerstein’s theory helps globalization in the international context. He believes that the rich creates the poor. Unless the poor country eventually changes it economy and accumulates its own capital, it will continue to stay in the periphery. The plausibility and appeal of this model lie in its recognition of the growing internationalisation of the industrial economy. Nation-states, whether capitalist or communist, are becoming increasingly subordinate to world economic developments. Decisions about capital investment and growth are made in a world context and on a global scale. The giant multinational corporations are the most significant new actors on the world stage and have been establishing a new international division of labour. From their point of view, it makes more sense to manufacture goods in South Korea or Taiwan, where labour is still cheap and governments compliant, than in the United States or Britain, where labour is expensive and regulation stringent. Such high-level functions as central planning and research and development can be retained in their Western homelands, where there are the necessary reserves of highly trained professional and scientific personnel. Profits can be declared in those countries where taxes are lowest. In such a way do the multinationals illustrate, even embody, the interdependence of core and periphery nations. In order to move a country’s status from the periphery to the core, Wallerstein proposes import substitution as a solution. Import substitution is a phenomenon that responds to external disruption of trade by domestically producing substitutes for those goods previously imported. This is a policy that governments in less developed countries may use to undertake industrialisation and structural changes. However, there are criticisms of Wallerstein’s theory with regards to the semi-periphery. They describe it being an improvised, ‘invention to deal with those cases that do not fit neatly into the core-periphery framework.’ Critics deduce this because the majority of development economic theory in recent years has centred upon, ‘the elaboration of dependent development in the countries of the semi-periphery.’ Furthermore, other criticisms include the fact that the theory is, ‘too deterministic both economically and in terms of the constraining effects of the global capitalist system.’ Therefore, it is arguable that the neo-Marxist assessments of an increased inequality and subordination between the Global South and North which has been constructed through neo-liberal policies are valid and well-founded. The development of critical theories such as the Dependency and Modern World System have accurately criticised neo-liberal policies of market-led reforms and how underlying capitalism will lead to the core being concentrated in areas of the North. However, there are flaws in the Dependency Theory, as mentioned, including the need to address the solutions of development in peripheral countries. Furthermore, Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory has successfully been able to incorporate not only core and periphery states but that of the semi-periphery, which include emerging market economies such of India, Brazil and China. These states act as a buffer between the core and periphery countries. Despite these flaws both theories present an excellent assessment of n eo-liberal policies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Balaam, David and Veseth, Michael – Introduction to International Political Economy (London: Pearson Prentice Hall 2001) pp. 70-90 Brewer, Anthony – Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey (London: Routledge, 1990) pp. 60-73 Byres, Terence, ‘Neoliberalism and Primitive Accumulation in LDCs’ in Saad-Filho, Alfredo and Johnston, Deborah – Neoliberalism: A Critical Reader (London: Pluto Press, 2005) pp. 83-91 Chase-Dunn, Christopher and Grimes, Peter, ‘World-System Analysis,’ Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 21. (1995), pp. 387-417 Chomsky, Noam – Profit Over People: Neo-Liberalism and Global Order (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999) p. 7-34 Corbridge, Stuart Development Studies: A Reader (London: Edward Arnold, 1995) pp. 1-15 Frank, Andre Gunder – Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969) pp.3-12 Helleiner, Eric, ‘Alternatives to Neo-Liberalism? Towards a More Heterogeneous Global Political Economy,’ in Stubbs, Richard and Underhill, Geoffrey Political economy and the changing global order (Oxford:  Oxford University Press,  2006) pp.77-88 Nicholson, Michael International Relations: A Concise Introduction (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998) p. 4-23 Olson, Richard Stuart – ‘Economic Coercion in World Politics: With a Focus on North-South Relations,’ World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 4. (Jul., 1979), pp. 471-494 Radice, Hugo, ‘Neoliberal Globalisation: Imperialism with Empires?’ in Saad-Filho, Alfredo and Johnston, Deborah – Neoliberalism: A Critical Reader (London: Pluto Press, 2005) pp. 91-99 Saad-Filho, Alfredo, ‘The Political Economy of Neoliberalism in Latin America’ in Saad-Filho, Alfredo and Johnston, Deborah – Neoliberalism: A Critical Reader (London: Pluto Press, 2005) pp. 222-230 Scharpf, Fritz and Schmidt, Vivien – Welfare and Work in the Open Economy Volume II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) pp.36-41 Sklair, Leslie – Globalization: Capitalism and its alternatives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) pp. 30-48 Smith, Tony, ‘The Underdevelopment of Development Literature: The Case of Dependency Theory,’ World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 2. (Jan., 1979), pp. 247-288 Thomas, Caroline, ‘Globalization and Development in the South,’ in Ravenhill, John – Global Political Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) pp. 317-344 Willis, Kate – Theories and Practices of Development (London: Routledge, 2006) pp.62-75, 173-179

Peanut :: essays research papers

This article is about peanut, the plant. There is a separate article about Peanuts, the comic strip by Charles M. Schulz. Peanut Peanut leaves and freshly dug pods Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Fabales Family: Fabaceae Subfamily: Faboideae Tribe: Aeschynomeneae Genus: Arachis Species: A. hypogaea Binomial name Arachis hypogaea L. The Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the pea family Fabaceae native to South America. It is an annual herbaceous plant growing to 30-50 cm tall. The leaves are alternate, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet), each leaflet 1-7 cm long and 1-3 cm broad. The flowers are a typical peaflower in shape, 2-4 cm across, yellow with reddish veining. After pollination, the fruit develops into a legume 3-7 cm long containing 2-3 (rarely 1 or 4) seeds, which forces its way underground to mature. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense the fruit of the peanut is a woody, indehiscent legume or pod. Peanuts are also known as Groundnuts (because they grow underground), Earthnuts, Goobers, Goober peas, Pindas, Pinders, Manila nuts and Monkey nuts (the last of these is often used to mean the entire pod, not just the seeds). Contents [showhide] 1 Origins 2 Cultivation 3 Cultivars of Peanuts 3.1 Spanish Group 3.2 Runner Group 3.3 Virginia Group 3.4 Valencia Group 3.5 Tennessee Red and Tennessee White Groups 4 Uses 5 Allergies 6 U.S. Department of Agriculture Program for Peanuts 7 Trade 8 See also 9 External links [edit] Origins Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the peanut was domesticated in prehistoric times in South America, where wild ancestors are still found. The plant was later spread worldwide by European traders. Cultivation in North America was popularized by African American, who brought the Kikongo word goober. [edit] Cultivation Peanuts, showing legumes, one split open revealing two seeds with their brown seed coatsThe flower of the Arachis hypogaea is borne above ground and after it withers, the stalk elongates, bends down, and forces the ovary underground. When the seed is mature, the inner lining of the pods (called the seed coat) changes color from white to a reddish brown. The entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil during harvesting. The pods begin in the orange veined, yellow petaled, pealike flowers, which are borne in axillary clusters above ground. Following self-pollination (peanuts are complete inbreeders), the flowers fade. The stalks at the bases of the ovaries, called pegs, elongate rapidly, and turn downward to bury the fruits several inches in the ground to complete their development.

Concepts Of Lifetime Fitness :: essays research papers

Concepts of Lifetime Fitness Homeostasis is the state of equilibrium in which the internal environment of the human body remains relatively constant.   Two excellent examples of homeostasis are how the body maintains a constant temperature and blood pressure during strenuous physical activity or exercise.   Although there are many other activities in the body that display homeostasis, I will only discuss these two.    Temperature in the human body is usually kept at approximately 37 degrees Celsius.   To maintain such a strict temperature, the body has a few functions to combat the outside elements.   People cannot make themselves cold as readily as make themselves hot, however I will mention both homeostasis functions.   When the external temperature decreases, a portion of the brain called the hypothalamus detects the drop by means of the blood.   To compensate, the brain sends chemical and electrical impulses to the muscles.   These impulses tell the muscles to begin to contract and relax at very high intervals.   This is commonly known as shivering.   The production of Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP in the mitochondria of the muscles produces heat.   If the body temperature does not rise immediately after this, then a second function begins. The brain will signal the blood vessels near the skin to constrict or narrow in diameter.   This occurs so the heat deep in the muscles is conserved.   Since the vessels are now smaller in diameter, less blood is needed to fill them.   Since less blood is needed through the vessels, the heart begins to slow.   If the body remains in this slowed state, hypothermia could result.   Hypothermia is the condition in which metabolic processes are inhibited.   The medical world has taken advantage of this by inducing hypothermia in patients that are undergoing organ transplants. To fight temperatures higher than normal, as in exercise or on hot days, the body reacts in the opposite way than with cold.   Again, the hypothalamus detects the change of temperature in the blood.   The brain signals blood vessels not to constrict, but to dilate.   This increases the diameter of the vessels, and results in the need for more blood. Since more blood is needed to fill the vessels, the heart pumps faster and that causes respiration to increase.   The increased respiration will make the body exhale some of the internal heat, like placing a fan in a window to cool a room.   The blood vessels are dilated so the heat deep in the muscles is easily released.   Another commonly known mechanism to fight heat is sweating.   Sweat glands found throughout the body are stimulated by the hypothalamus to excrete sweat and when the sweat evaporates,

Accomplishment Report Format Essay

Introduction The school year 2005-2006 is still blissful for Sagada National High School. It is still an uphill battle and struggle to have a school building, a Filipino teacher, and basic facilities like library, chairs, and laboratory. As of now SNHS still squats on a dilapidated bayanihan building and a makeshift building in the compound of the Sagada Central Elementary School. In spite of these limitations, the school continues to reap honors for its name and to make a difference. For this school year it asserted its strong presence in mathematical competitions. Twice in a row, it represented the Division in the Regional MTAP Oral in the fourth year level. It participated in the National Press Conference held in Kalibo, Aklan. It also shines in sports as well as in beauty contests. Aside from MPGCHS, Sagada National High School is one of only two SMART schools in the Division of Mt. Province. Its application has already been approved. A tie up with SMART means the implementation of the ICT curriculum one of the signature programs of the school. SMART has already started providing for technical training for the faculty members. The inauguration of the school as a SMART school was moved from March to June. Through a raffle fund raising project, the school was able to acquire six computer units. All in all it has 13 computers, including five, courtesy of Hon. Congressman Dominguez. This last April the computer laboratory was set up. This is for the graduates to have summer computer training before they enroll for college this coming school year. This humbling experience was made possible due to the dedication and commitment of the faculty members and the strong support of the PTCA and other stake holders of the school. Basic Performance Indicators: 1. Promotion Rate- 259/281 = 92.17% 2. Completion Rate- 67/89 = 75.28% 3. Graduation Rate- 67/69 = 97.10% 4. Retention Rate- 136/150 = 90.67% 5. Dropout Rate- 7/281 = 2.49% 6. Cohort Survival Rate- 69/89 = 77.53% 7. Repetition Rate- 3/295 = 1.02% 8. Gross Teacher Ratio= 281/9 = 1:31 9. Participation Rate- Data not available 10. Gross Enrollment Ratio- Data not complete 11. Transition Rate-Data not complete Enrollment We expected that the enrollment of SNHS dropped considerably because of the attractive facilities offered by St. Mary’s School. There was a massive recruitment by the alumni of Saint Mary’s. However, tentative enrollment posted by the school shows that SNHS posted a total of 71 first year students while SMS has only 32 first year students. The table below shows the actual enrollment: Highlights of Accomplishment 1. Acquisition of six computers through a raffle fund raising- Through the initiative of the PTCA, the faculty members and the student body the they were able to raise a considerable amount used to purchase six computer units. 2. Setting up of the Computer Laboratory- SNHS can’t afford to lose its students just because it does not have a computer laboratory which is readily available at the Saint Mary’s School. Aside from the six computers which came from the fund raising, we were able to solicit other units and together with the computers given by Congressman Dominguez, we have 13 units. With this we set up the computer laboratory with the help of our Peace Corp volunteer Mr. Daniel Ziegler. Right now our graduates are having hands-on summer training in computer usage. 3. Tying-up with SMART- SNHS is a SMART school. SMART company approved our application; hence it will assist us by giving two computers, computer accessories like printers, web cameras, and scanner.Besides, they will assist us in the installation of the internet connection for the students and right now two of our teachers were on technical training for this in Subic. Ultimately they will be with us in the planned implementation of the ICT curriculum. 4. Setting-up of our Website- It has been a year since SNHS came online. This is courtesy of Mr. Kent Sinkey, a retired computer analyst from the University of Cincinnati who assisted us in the setting up of our website. A member of the PTCA based in London is shouldering the cost of the website for the school. Mr. Sinkey also trained two of our students in website development. 5. Free Summer Training in Computer Usage- As requested by the PTCA, the graduates are  having summer training on computer usage in the computer laboratory of the school. Daniel Ziegler our Peace Corp volunteer is assisting us in computer instruction. 6. At the beginning of the 2005-2006 school year the faculty donated money so the school could have an internet connection in order to do faculty research, have e-mail and maintain this electronic yearbook. Josephine Buyagan was kind enough to donate the money necessary for our domain name and website hosting.

Evidence-Based Practice & Applied Nursing Research Essay

Type of Sources / Appropriateness of Sources / Classification of Sources American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians article regarding acute otitis media is a filtered resource. It is an appropriate source for nursing practice because; it establishes clinical guidelines to diagnose and manage AOM. It also establishes guidelines when to treat the signs and symptoms of AOM, watchful waiting, or to treat with an antibiotic. This article is classified as an evidence based guideline because, it reviews multiple research literatures in a systemic manner and provides recommendations of practice. Block’s Causative Pathogens article is an unfiltered resource. It is an appropriate source for nursing practice because it provides the clinician with the most recent and up to date research on the topic. The article is primary research evidence because; its researchers acquired the data first hand. Kelly’s article regarding Current pediatric diagnosis and treatment is a general information resource. This article is not appropriate for clinician use because it only provides basic general background. It does not guide the clinician in diagnosing and treatment. McCracken’s article in the Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal is an unfiltered resource. It is an appropriate for nursing practice because it supports established guidelines and shows what will happen with continued antibiotic use. This is an evidence summary article because it lists all of the important information and the evidence supporting it. The last source of evidence is interviews with parents. This type of source is considered a general information resource. It is appropriate because, the interviews give firsthand experience of onset and signs and symptoms of AOM. This source of classifications is none of the listed. â€Å"Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common infection for which antibacterial agents are prescribed for children in the United States. As such, the diagnosis and management of AOM has a significant impact on the health of children, cost of providing care, and overall use of antibacterial agents (AAFP, 2004).  Watchful waiting can have many benefits for the children and the provider if used properly. Diagnosing AOM can be tricky. The signs and symptoms can also be related to other illnesses such as an upper respiratory virus. Throwing antibiotics at any illness use to be the course of action. However, now that there is evidence that bacteria have become resistant to some antibiotics, clinicians are testing out other means of treating illnesses. If the child presenting with symptoms of AOM has no underlying conditions and has means to follow up with the doctor if the symptoms progress, watchful waiting is an appropriate app roach for treating the child. According to the research, placebo controlled trials have shown that children have responded well without antibacterial intervention. Giving the opportunity for the illness to resolve without antibacterial intervention not only benefits the child but, the caregivers and the clinician. It benefits the child by not being exposed to antibiotics that are not needed, therefore creating a potential resistance to that antibiotic. It benefits the caregiver by not spending money on a medication their child does not need. Last, it benefits the clinician by preventing resistance to an antibiotic that may be useful in the near future. Watchful waiting is only appropriate if the patient meets the guidelines of uncomplicated AOM, assurance of a follow up if necessary, and access to antibiotics if symptoms progress or worsen. The findings in the AAFP article can be applied in many ways to improve nursing practice in a healthcare setting. The article provides evidence based guidelines on how to properly diagnose AOM and the typical signs and symptoms. It establishes the three criteria the patient must exhibit for a certain diagnosis of AOM. If the patient does not meet the certain criteria, it guides the clinician to continue to assess the patient for another illness, such as an upper respiratory virus. Proper diagnosis will improve clinician treatment and care of the patient. The article also includes a descriptive chart on how to assess and manage pain associated with AOM. It lists for the clinician the recommended medications, remedies, and agents for the clinician to utilize to manage pain. It also lists the effectiveness and the side effects. This will help improve nursing care by implementing the proper medication and or remedies to the patient with the highest effectiveness and the least amount of side effects. The article also very clearly identifies when watchful waiting is  not appropriate and what antibiotics should be prescribed and the usual dosage. This information is helpful to nursing practice by helping the clinician distinguish what patient is suitable for watchful waiting or antibiotic therapy. Another way the article improves nursing practice is, that the article provides information on how to prevent AOM and reoccurrence. This information can be used to help educate patient’s caregivers on ways to prevent AOM and reoccurrence. Ethical issues always arise when it comes to healthcare, especially when it comes to children. When conducting an evidence based research, there is a high likelihood of exposing the child to potential danger, illness, and adverse reactions. The first ethical issue is; is it even right to subject a child to research if there is a high likelihood of helping other children. That is something for the children’s parents to decide. However, it is the responsibility of the researchers to fully explain the process, potential side effects, potential danger, and any other concerns to the parents. It also the responsibility of researchers to determine if the parents have the capability to comprehend the information and the risk of the research. Not doing so would be unethical and could tarnish the results of the research. Another major ethical dilemma that comes with involving children in research is that the children do not have the capability of making that decision themselves. Research should be a voluntary thing and not left up to someone else to decide. However, when it comes to children that is not an option. The ethical problem is should the child be subjected to potential harm because of the parents’ willingness to allow it. The needs to be guidelines established prior to the start of the research that regulate the risks that the child might be subjected to. The risk should be very minimal with a very high benefit. Involving children in any type of evidence based research can be very tricky and has the potential of bringing up multiple ethical issues. It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure the child is protected, not exposed to unneeded harm, and the caregivers are knowledgeable of the risk factors and are competent enough to make an informed decision. Besides ethical issues, there are other issues that need to be taken into consideration when research involves children. Vulnerable populations, such as low income families, families with different cultural backgrounds, and families with insufficient education can be at risk when it  comes to research involving children. For an example, low income families may not have the opportunity to participate in evidence based research because they might not fit certain criteria. In the AAFP research, in order for the child to be a candidate of the watchful waiting, they had to have means of a follow up appointment. For low income families, coming to the doctor multiple time may not be option. Financially they may not be able to afford, parents may not be able to get time off from work, or have means of transportation for a follow up appointment. These circumstances may subject the child to unneeded antibiotic treatment simply because the patient is unable to follow up with the doctor. Also, families with a cultural difference may not fully understand the benefits or risks of allowing their child to participate in this research. Without informed consent, the results of the research are tarnished and run the risk of jeopardizing the study. Informed consent when it comes to research involving children is extremely important for validity of a project and prevents any ethical problems. Any research involving children can be extremely tricky and should be held to the highest ethical standards and involve minimal risk to children. References American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians. (2004.) Clinical practice guideline: Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Retrieved from http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;113/5/1451 Block, S. L. (1997). Causative pathogens, antibiotic resistance and therapeutic considerations in acute otitis media. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 16, 449–456. Kelley, P. E., Friedman, N., Johnson, C. (2007). Ear, nose, and throat. In W. W. Hay, M. J. Levin, J. M. Sondheimer, & R. R. Deterding (Eds.), Current pediatric diagnosis and treatment (18th ed., pp. 459–492). New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill. McCracken, G. H. (1998). Treatment of acute otitis media in an era of increasing microbial resistance. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 17, 576–579.